July 22, 2009: In order to facilitate the eligible companies resident outside India to issue Indian Depository Receipts (IDRs) through a Domestic Depository and to permit persons resident in India and outside India to purchase, possess, transfer and redeem IDRs, RBI has decided to operationalise the IDR Rules, notified by the Government of India, as amended from time to time, with immediate effect.
3. Accordingly, eligible companies resident outside India may issue Indian Depository Receipts (IDRs) through a Domestic Depository. The permission has been granted subject to compliance with the Companies (Issue of Depository Receipts) Rules, 2004 and subsequent amendments made thereto and the SEBI (DIP) Guidelines, 2000, as amended from time to time. In case of raising of funds through issuance of IDRs by financial/banking companies having presence in India, either through a branch or subsidiary, the approval of the sectoral regulator(s) should be obtained before the issuance of IDRs.
Investment by Persons resident in India / FIIs / NRIs in IDRs
4. The FEMA Regulations shall not be applicable to persons resident in India as defined under section 2(v) of FEMA, 1999, for investing in IDRs and subsequent transfer arising out of transaction on a recognized Stock Exchange in India. Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) including SEBI approved sub-accounts of the FIIs, registered with SEBI and Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) may also invest, purchase, hold and transfer IDRs of eligible companies resident outside India and issued in the Indian capital market, subject to the Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or Issue of Security by a Person Resident Outside India) Regulations, 2000 notified vide Notification No. FEMA 20 / 2000-RB dated May 3, 2000, as amended from time to time. Further, NRIs are allowed to invest in the IDRs out of funds held in their NRE / FCNR(B) account, maintained with an Authorised Dealer / Authorised bank.
Fungibility
5. Automatic fungibility of IDRs is not permitted.
Period of redemption
6. IDRs shall not be redeemable into underlying equity shares before the expiry of one year period from the date of issue of the IDRs.
Procedure for transfer and redemption of IDRs:
7. At the time of redemption / conversion of IDRs into underlying shares, the Indian holders (persons resident in India) of IDRs shall comply with the provisions of the Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or Issue of Any Foreign Security) Regulations, 2004 notified vide Notification No. FEMA 120 / RB-2004 dated July 7 2004, as amended from time to time. Accordingly, the following guidelines shall be followed, on redemption of IDRs:
Listed Indian companies may either sell or continue to hold the underlying shares subject to the terms and conditions as per Regulations 6B and 7 of Notification No. FEMA 120/RB-2004 dated July 7, 2004, as amended from time to time.
Indian Mutual Funds, registered with SEBI may either sell or continue to hold the underlying shares subject to the terms and conditions as per Regulation 6C of Notification No. FEMA 120/RB-2004 dated July 7, 2004, as amended from time to time.
Other persons resident in India including resident individuals are allowed to hold the underlying shares only for the purpose of sale within a period of 30 days from the date of conversion of the IDRs into underlying shares.
The FEMA provisions shall not apply to the holding of the underlying shares, on redemption of IDRs by the FIIs including SEBI approved sub-accounts of the FIIs and NRIs.
Others
8. The proceeds of the issue of IDRs shall be immediately repatriated outside India by the eligible companies issuing such IDRs. The IDRs issued shall be denominated in Indian Rupees.
9. AD Category –I banks may bring the contents of this circular to the notice of their constituents and customers.
10. Necessary amendments to the Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or Issue of Security by a Person Resident Outside India) Regulations, 2000 and Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or Issue of Any Foreign Security) Regulations, 2004, are being issued separately.
11. The directions contained in this circular have been issued under Sections 10(4) and 11(1) of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (42 of 1999) and are without prejudice to permissions / approvals, if any, required under any other law.
Tuesday, September 1, 2009
ABOUT RAJINIKANTH (ACTOR)
Chuck Norris can easily be called the Rajinikanth of Hollywood. Around 2005 there was this internet phenomenon where people started circulating Chuck Norris Facts which describes the powers and achievements of the man. I made a list modifying a few of them some time after that to be about Rajinikanth. I sent it as a forwarded email and was gratified when I got them back a few months later from someone else. I am sharing them with you. Can you think about any other facts?
- There is no theory of evolution. Just a list of creatures Rajinikanth has allowed to live.
- Outer space exists because it’s afraid to be on the same planet with Rajinikanth.
- Rajinikanth counted to infinity – twice.
- When Rajinikanth does a pushup, he isn’t lifting himself up, he’s pushing the Earth down.
- Rajinikanth is so fast, he can run around the world and punch himself in the back of the head.
- Rajinikanth’s hand is the only hand that can beat a Royal Flush.
- Rajinikanth doesn’t wear a watch, HE decides what time it is.
- Rajinikanth gave Mona Lisa that smile.
- Rajinikanth can slam a revolving door.
- Rajinikanth does not get frostbite. Rajinikanth bites frost.
- Remember the Soviet Union? They decided to quit after watching a Padayappa on Satellite TV
- There are no races, only countries of people Rajinikanth has beaten to different shades of black and blue.
- Rajinikanth’s house has no doors, only walls that he walks through.
- Rajinikanth doesn’t actually write books, the words assemble themselves out of fear.
- Rajinikanth can divide by zero.
- Newton’s Third Law is wrong: Although it states that for each action, there is an equal and opposite reaction, there is no force equal in reaction to a Rajinikanth turnaround kick.
- When taking the GRE or CAT write “Rajinikanth” for every answer. You will score over 8000.
- Rajinikanth invented black. In fact, he invented the entire spectrum of visible light. Except pink. Tom Cruise invented pink.
- In the beginning there was nothing…then Rajinikanth kicked that nothing in the face and said “Get a job”. That is the story of the universe.
- Rajinikanth has 12 moons. One of those moons is the Earth.
- Rajinikanth grinds his coffee with his teeth and boils the water with his own rage.
- Archeologists unearthed an old english dictionary dating back to the year 1236. It defined “victim” as “one who has encountered Rajinikanth”
- Rajinikanth ordered a Big Mac at Burger King, and got one.
- If you Google search “Rajinikanth getting his ass kicked” you will generate zero results. It just doesn’t happen.
- Rajinikanth doesn’t bowl strikes, he just knocks down one pin and the other nine faint.
- It takes Rajinikanth 20 minutes to watch a three hour movie.
- The Bermuda Triangle used to be the Bermuda Square, until Rajinikanth kicked one of the corners off.
- There are no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, Rajinikanth lives in Chennai.
- Rajinikanth once ate an entire bottle of sleeping pills. They made him blink.
- James Cameron wanted Rajinikanth to play the Terminator. However, upon reflection, he realized that would have turned his movie into a documentary, so he went with Arnold Schwarzenegger.
- Thousands of years ago Rajinikanth came across a bear. It was so terrified that it fled north into the arctic. It was also so terrified that all of its decendents now have white hair.
- There is no ‘ctrl’ button on Rajinikanth’s computer. Rajinikanth is always in control.
- Rajinikanth can eat just one Lay’s potato chip.
- Most people have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Rajinikanth has 72… and they’re all poisonous.
- Time waits for no man. Unless that man is Rajinikanth.
- Rajinikanth knows where Sukumarakkurupp is.
- There is no such thing as global warming. Rajinikanth was cold, so he turned the sun up.
- Rajinikanth did in fact, build Rome in a day.
- If at first you don’t succeed, you’re not Rajinikanth.
- Rajinikanth can judge a book by its cover.
SALMAN KHAN PROMOTES FOOTBALL
New Delhi, Sep 1 (IANS) All India Football Federation (AIFF) has roped in Bollywood star Salman Khan as its brand ambassador.
Salman, who was present at the overflowing Ambedkar Stadium here Monday evening to watch India's Nehru Cup title victory over Syria, has agreed to promote the game free of cost, AIFF president Praful Patel said.
Bollywood's association with sports has grown in recent years. Sanjay Dutt is a brand ambassador of Indian boxing while other tinsel town stars have been competing with one another in either buying or promoting Indian Premier League (IPL) teams.
Salman has also expressed interest in buying an IPL team when the league will expand to 10 teams in 2011.
ICON OF FOOTBALL TEAM
| Name | Gostho Behari Pal | |
| Nick Name | Gostho Pal | |
| Born | 20th August, 1896 | |
| Birth Place | Bhojeswar,Faridpore,Bangladesh | |
| Position | Right Back | |
| First Coach | Late Rajen Sen and then Major Sailen Bose | |
| first Club | 1907:Kumartuli A.C of Kolkata only at the age of 11 | |
| First Big Club | 1914:At the age of 16, he joined Mohun Bagan Club of Kolkata. Mohunbagan Then playing in Kolkata Football League 2nd Divn and being a joint Winner with Messers club and they enterd into the 1st Divn League next year by the rules of IFA | |
| Fan's Name | Great Wall of China. Nobel Winner Indian Poet Rabindranath Tagore was his great fan | |
| Captain | 1921 - 1926 :He was the captain of Mohunbagan | |
| Foreign Visit | 1924 :Captain of Indian Side | |
| Foreign Visit | 1933 :Captain of Indian against Singhol,IndiaWon 1 - 0 | |
| Retired | 1936 from Mohunbagan | |
| Death | 8th April 1976 | |
| | 1962 | - He was honoured with the prestigious PADMASREE AWARD on 27th April 1962 | |
| 1984 | -Gostho Pal Sarani with the statue of the great man opposite Eden Gardens in Kolkata | ||
| 1998 | - The Post & Telegraph Department of Government of India honored the stalwart by issuing a postage stamp | ||
| 2004 | -The legend was posthumously honored with the Mohun Bagan Ratna |
ABDUL KALAM POETRY
Our mission is water
My mother called me Blue Nile
I am also named by mother White Nile
When we grew and grew we asked
Oh mother, Oh mother
Tell us, why did you name us Nile
Our mothers said lovingly
Oh our children
You travel and travel
Cross mountains, forests and valleys
Thousands of miles, enriching nine countries
you reach Khartoum
you Blue and White Niles confluence with a mission
God has commanded you to give a message
you give a beautiful message
When we rivers confluence
Oh humanity why not your hearts confluence
And you blossom with happiness.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
KING ASOKA
King Asoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, has come to be regarded as one of the most exemplary rulers in world history. The British historian H.G. Wells has written: "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history ... the name of Asoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star." Although Buddhist literature preserved the legend of this ruler -- the story of a cruel and ruthless king who converted to Buddhism and thereafter established a reign of virtue -- definitive historical records of his reign were lacking. Then in the nineteenth century there came to light a large number of edicts, in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. These edicts, inscribed on rocks and pillars, proclaim Asoka's reforms and policies and promulgate his advice to his subjects. The present rendering of these edicts, based on earlier translations, offers us insights into a powerful and capable ruler's attempt to establish an empire on the foundation of righteousness, a reign which makes the moral and spiritual welfare of his subjects its primary concern. The Australian bhikkhu Ven. S. Dhammika, the compiler of the present work, is the spiritual director of the Buddha Dhamma Mandala Society in Singapore.
FIRST WAR OF INDIAN INDEPENDENCE
Many historians called this First War of Independence as a �Sepoy Mutiny� of 1857. For them it was just a bunch of Indian sepoys (soldiers) who had mutinied. They largely failed to recognize the involvement of a vast section of Indian society that took part in this struggle. Peasants and nobles all were involved. Lack of planning and co-ordination amongst people who took part in this struggle resulted in defeat of Indians. Many innocent people were killed on both sides. Karl Marx wrote about the attitude of British media in 1857 - �And then it should not be forgotten that while the cruelties of the English are related as acts of martial vigor, told simply, rapidly, without dwelling on disgusting details, the outrages of the natives, shocking as they are, are still deliberately exaggerated.�
Period just before the beginning of India�s First War of Independence
British had little respite from fighting against Indians as they tried to strengthen their grip on India. Sometimes by design, sometimes almost by accident the area controlled by the British increased, until by 1857 everything from the borders of Afghanistan in the west to the jungles of Burma in the east, from the Himalayas in north, to the beaches of Sri Lanka in south were under British East India companies control. In 1857 the total number of soldiers in India was 260,000 amongst them there were just around fourteen percent (34,000) European soldiers.
Less then ten years after the last Anglo-Sikh war there was great unrest in India, specially the northern part. Somewhere along the way the British seemed to lose touch with their Indian subject. By 1857 there was a big gulf between Indians and British.
Factors responsible for unrest amongst Indian masses
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The arrival of missionaries had also caused great unease among the Indians. Evangelical Christians had little understanding of, or respect for, India's ancient faiths.The attitude of scrupulous non-interference in religious affairs that had characterized British rule in the 18th century was forgotten. Native populace started to believe that the British wished to convert them. The passing of Act XXI of 1850, which enabled converts to inherit ancestral property, confirmed this belief; the new law was naturally interpreted as a concession to Christian converts. Hindus and Muslims were forced into Christianity. The British were rude and arrogant towards the Indians who they described as barbarians without any culture. The European judges hardly ever convicted British for their crimes.
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Thousands of soldiers and nobles got unemployed when Lord Dalhousie annexed Avadh. Under his 'Doctrine of Lapse' the princes were denied the long-cherished right of adoption; in this way Dalhousie annexed the Maratha States of Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi and several minor principalities. On the death of the ex-Peshwa, Baji Rao II, the pension granted to him was abolished and the claims of his adopted son, Nana Sahib, were disregarded.
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British administrative laws ruined both the peasants and landlords. Indian handicrafts completely collapsed and the craftsmen were impoverished. India became a market place for finished goods from England. Poverty increased and the discontent among the masses motivated the Indians to join the revolt in large numbers. Thus, the British drained India of her wealth and all her natural resources.
Beginning of First War of Independence (1857)
People whispered of the old prophecy, which stated that 100 years after the battle of Plassey, the rule of 'John Company' would end. Plassey had been in 1757 and in the hundredth year after the battle it seemed everyone was awaiting a spark. The cartridge of Enfield rifle used by British-Indian Army was heavily greased with animal fat. Indian soldiers heard and quickly passed on the news that the grease was a mixture of cow (sacred to Hindus) and pig (abhorrent to Muslims) fat.
It began at Barrackpore on 29th March 1857. Mangel Pande, a young soldier of the 34th Native Infantry, shot at his sergeant major on the parade ground. When the British adjutant rode over, Pande shot the horse and severely wounded the officer with a sword. He was later arrested and hanged. As a collective punishment the 34th Native Infantry was disbanded. Mangal Pande became a martyr and an icon representing the beginning of Indian War of Independence.
A few weeks later on 24th of April 1857, eighty-five soldiers of the 3rd Light Cavalry in Meerut refused orders to handle the new cartridges. They were arrested, court-martialled and sentenced to ten years hard labor each. On 9th May 1857, at an appalling ceremony in the parade ground of Meerut, they were publicly humiliated: stripped of their uniform, shackled and sent to prison. The following day (10th May 1857) was a Sunday and as Britons prepared for church, Meerut exploded. Enraged soldiers broke open the town jail and released their comrades. A mob from the bazaar and Indian soldiers poured into the cantonment where the Britishers lived and killed many of them. Then these soldiers marched towards Delhi. There were three regiments of native infantry in Delhi.
On the morning of 11th May the soldiers from Meerut reached Delhi. Gathering below the walls of the Red Fort, the mutineers called for last Mughal King Bahadur Shah. A British officer, Captain Douglas, commanded Bahadur Shah�s personal guard. From the walls high above Captain Douglas ordered them to disperse. Soldiers accompanied by a mob burst into the palace, killed Douglas and asked Bahadur Shah to reclaim his throne. The 38th, 54th, and 74th regiments of infantry and native artillery under Bahkt Khan (1797- 1859) joined the rebel army at Delhi in May. The loss of Delhi was a crushing blow to British prestige and the symbolic associations of the capital of the Moghuls becomming the center of the mutiny was something the British could not ignore. It took British nearly two months to regroup and then they set out to reclaim Delhi. From Meerut and Simla two British columns set out for the capital. Hampered by lack of transport, it was weeks before they joined forces at Ambala. Punishing disloyal villages as they advanced, one could have charted their course by the scores of corpses they left hanging from trees as the British army moved towards Delhi. At Badli-ke-Serai, five miles from Delhi, they met the main army of the Indian soldiers. British won there but most of the Indian soldiers fled back to the protection of the walls of Delhi. The British established themselves on Delhi ridge, a thin spur of high ground to the north of the city. In September 1857, under the command of Major Nicholson and with support of Sikh and Gurkha army were able to reclaim Delhi, breaching the walls with heavy guns and after a bitter street-to-street fight. In the attack on the Kashmiri gate Nicholson had been hit by a bullet and died soon after. One last atrocity was yet to happen. British officer Hodson arrested the old King Bahadur Shah and killed his three sons in cold blood. Bahadur Shah was tried for complicity to murder and other offences, found guilty and sent into exile in Rangoon. The last of the Moghuls, Bahadur Shah died there in 1862. Hodson was never punished for his summary executions of the princes. He died in the retaking of Lucknow in 1858.
Kanpur was an important junction where the Grand Trunk Road and the road from Jhansi to Lucknow crossed. One of the leaders of the First War of Independence, Nana Saheb of Bithur was born in 1824. Nana Saheb was well educated. He studied Sanskrit and was known for his deep religious nature. On the death of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao-II, in 1851 the Company's Government stopped the annual pension and the title. Nana Saheb's appeal to the Court of Directors was not accepted. This made him hostile towards the British rulers. In 1857 Kanpur was garrisoned by four regiments of native infantry and a European battery of artillery and was commanded by General Sir Hugh Wheeler. After a fierce battle at Kanpur, General Sir Hugh Wheeler surrendered on June 27, 1857.
The English men, women and children who fell into the hands of Nana Sahib were assured of safe conduct to Allahabad. However the inhuman treatment meted out to the Indians by General James O'Neil at Allahabad and Banaras made the crowd angry who retaliated by murdering British men, women and children. Many innocent lives were lost at �Massacre Ghat� and �Bibi ka Ghar� in Kanpur.
After seizing Kanpur, Nana Saheb proclaimed himself the Peshwa. Tantia Tope, Jwala Prasad and Azimullah Khan were the loyal followers of Nana Sahib, and are remembered for their valiant fight against the British. In June 1857 the British defeated Nana Sahib. Though Nana Sahib and Tantia Tope recaptured Kanpur in November 1857, they could not hold it for long as General Campbell reoccupied it on 6th December 1857. Nana Sahib escaped to Nepal and his whereabouts afterwards were unknown. Tantia Tope escaped and joined the Rani of Jhansi.
Rani Laxmibai was born in 1830 at Banaras in a wealthy family and was named Manukarnika at birth. She got married to King Gangadhar Rao of Jhansi. Gangadhar Rao did not have any children and he adopted one of his relatives Damodar Rao as his heir. After Gangadhar Rao's death in 1853 the British refused to accept Damodar Rao as the legal heir of Jhansi and wanted to annex the kingdom into their rule. In 1857 at Jhansi, the army rebelled and killed the British Army officers. Rani Laxmibai, the widow of the late Raja Gangadhar Rao, was proclaimed the ruler of the state. In 1858 the British army once again marched towards Jhansi. Not willing to let the British takeover her kingdom the Rani built an army of 14,000 volunteers to fight the British. The soldiers of Jhansi fought very bravely for 2 weeks and the Rani led the forces in this battle. Sir Hugh Rose recaptured Jhansi on 3rd April 1858. The English could not capture Rani of Jhansi as she escaped to Kalpi (near Gwalior) where Tantia Tope joined her. Both marched to Gwalior. Sir Hugh Rose also advanced towards Gwalior and captured it in June 1858. Rani Laxmi Bai died fighting bravely. Rani Laxmibai (Rani Jhansi) became immortal in Indian history for her bravery and struggle against British rule. Tantia Tope escaped southward, but was betrayed by one of his friends Man Singh and was finally hanged in 1859.
Kunwar Singh, zamindar of Jagdishpur near Arrah in the state of Bihar, was the chief organizer of the fight against British. He assumed command of the soldiers who had revolted at Danapur on 5th July. Two days later he occupied Arrah, the district headquarter. Major Vincent Eyre relieved the town on 3rd August, defeated Kunwar Singh's force and destroyed Jagdishpur. Kunwar Singh left his ancestral village and reached Lucknow in December 1857. In March 1858 he occupied Azamgarh. However, he had to leave the place soon. Pursued by Brigadier Douglas, he retreated towards his home in Bihar. On 23 April, Kunwar Singh had a victory near Jagdishpur over the force led by Captain Le Grand, but the following day he died in his village. The mantle of the old chief now fell on his brother Amar Singh who, despite heavy odds, continued the struggle and for a considerable time ran a parallel government in the district of Shahabad. In October 1859 Amar Singh joined the rebel leaders in the Nepal Terai.
At Lucknow War against British was led by the Begum of Awadh Hazrat Mehal who proclaimed her young son Nawab. Hazrat Begum felicitated her troops in person in Alambagh and when Dilkusha was taken and the soldiers of freedom fought with desperate courage for the defense of Luknow. Musabagh, which was defended, by a valiant band of revolutionaries under the leadership of the heroic Begum herself till March 1858, when she left Lucknow for the north with her troops followed by Ahmad Shah. Both of them fell upon Shahjehanpur and tried to drive out the British from Rohilkhand. She failed to capture Rohilkhand and she marched on along with other revolutionary leaders towards Nepal where she found asylum till her death.
India�s First War of Independence carried on as late as 1859 in some instances before it was finally over. A number of heroes and heroines of the India�s First war of Independence have been immortalized for their fight in against British rule.
Aftermath of First war of Independence
In the early months of the British recovery, few Indian soldiers were left alive after their positions were overrun. The British soldiers seemed to have made a collective decision not to take prisoners and most actions ended with a frenzied use of the bayonet. Whole villages were sometimes hanged for some real or imagined sympathy for the mutineers. Looting was endemic and neither the sanctity of holy places nor the rank of Indian aristocrats could prevent the wholesale theft of their possessions. Many a British family saw its fortune made during the pacification of northern India. Later, when prisoners started to be taken and trials held, those convicted of mutiny were lashed to the muzzles of cannon and fired through their body. For more than a year the people of northern India trembled with fear as the British sated their thirst for revenge. The Indians called it 'the Devil's Wind'.
A hundred years after battle of Plassey the rule of the East India Company finally did come to an end. In 1858, British parliament passed a law through which the power for governance of India was transferred from the East India Company to the British crown. In 1858, the Queen issued a proclamation saying that all were her subjects and that there would be no discrimination, appointments would be made on the basis of merit, and that there would be no interference in religious matters. It became evident in the succeeding years that the British government did not honor the Queen's promises. After 1857, the nationalist movement started to expand in the hearts of more and more Indians.
EUROPEAN TRADERS IN INDIA
Indian trade links with Europe started in through sea route only after the arrival of Vasco da Gama in Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. The Portuguese had traded in Goa as early as 1510, and later founded three other colonies on the west coast in Diu, Bassein, and Mangalore. In 1601 the East India Company was chartered, and the English began their first inroads into the Indian Ocean. At first they were little interested in India, but rather, like the Portuguese and Dutch before them, with the Spice Islands. But the English were unable to dislodge the Dutch from Spice Islands. In 1610, the British chased away a Portuguese naval squadron, and the East India Company created its own outpost at Surat. This small outpost marked the beginning of a remarkable presence that would last over 300 years and eventually dominate the entire subcontinent. In 1612 British established a trading post in Gujarat. As a result of English disappointments with dislodging the Dutch from the Spice Islands, they turned instead to India. In 1614 Sir Thomas Roe was instructed by James I to visit the court of Jahangir, the Mughal emperor of Hindustan. Sir Thomas was to arrange a commercial treaty and to secure for the East India Company sites for commercial agencies, -"factories" as they were called. Sir Thomas was successful in getting permission from Jahangir for setting up factories. East India Company set up factories at Ahmedabad, Broach and Agra. In 1640 East India Company established an outpost at Madras. In 1661 the company obtained Bombay from Charles II and converted it to a flourishing center of trade by 1668. English settlements rose in Orissa and Bengal. In 1633, in the Mahanadi delta of Hariharpur at Balasore in Orissa, factories were set up. In 1650 Gabriel Boughton an employee of the Company obtained a license for trade in Bengal. An English factory was set up in 1651 at Hugli. In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory. In 1698 the factory was fortified and called Fort William. The villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and Gobindpore were developed into a single area called Calcutta. Calcutta became a trading center for East India Company. Once in India, the British began to compete with the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. Through a combination of outright combat and deft alliances with local princes, the East India Company gained control of all European trade in India by 1769. In 1672 the French established themselves at Pondicherry and stage was set for a rivalry between the British and French for control of Indian trade.
Battle of Plassey - On June 23rd, 1757 at Plassey, between Calcutta and Murshidabad, the forces of the East India Company under Robert Clive met the army of Siraj-ud-Doula, the Nawab of Bengal. Clive had 800 Europeans and 2200 Indians whereas Siraj-ud-doula in his entrenched camp at Plassey was said to have about 50,000 men with a train of heavy artillery. The aspirant to the Nawab's throne, Mir Jafar, was induced to throw in his lot with Clive, and by far the greater number of the Nawab's soldiers were bribed to throw away their weapons, surrender prematurely, and even turn their arms against their own army. Siraj-ud-Doula was defeated. Battle of Plassey marked the first major military success for British East India Company.
Battle of Wandiwash 1760 - from 1744, the French and English fought a series of battles for supremacy in the Carnatic region. In the third Carnatic war, the British East India Company defeated the French forces at the battle of Wandiwash ending almost a century of conflict over supremacy in India. This battle gave the British trading company a far superior position in India compared to the other Europeans.
Battle of Buxar - In June 1763 under Major Adams British army defeated Mir Kasim the Nawab of Bengal. Though they with a smaller army against Mir Kasim, the English had victories at Katwah, Giria, Sooty, Udaynala and Monghyr. Mir Kasim fled to Patna and took help from Nawab Shujauddaulah and the Emperor Shah Alam II. But the English under the General Major Hector Munro at Buxar defeated the confederate army on 22 October, 1764. Mir Kasim fled again fled and died in 1777. After winning the Battle of Buxar, the British had earned the right to collect land revenue in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. This development set the foundations of British political rule in India. After the victory of the English in Buxar Robert Clive was appointed the governor and commander in chief of the English army in Bengal in 1765. He is claimed as the founder of the British political dominion in India. Robert Clive also brought reforms in the administration of the company and the organization of the army.
Warren Hastings was appointed the Governor of Bengal in 1772. Under the Regulating Act of 1773 passed by British parliament, a Council of four members was appointed, and Warren Hastings (Governor-General 1774-85) was empowered to conduct the Company's affairs with the Council's advice. His task was to consolidate the Company's rule in Bengal. He brought about several administrative and judicial changes. Warren Hasting faced an uphill task in dealing with the Indian rulers. He faced stiff resistance from the Marathas in the north and Hyder Ali in the south. In 1773 he concluded the treaty of Banaras with the Nawab of Avadh appeasing the emperor and getting financial gains thus blocking alliances between the Marathas and the Nawab of Avadh. Under Warren Hastings English army took part in the Rohilla War in 1774 that brought Rohilkhand in the company's jurisdiction.
The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)
After the death of the Raja of Mysore in 1760, Hyder Ali, became the ruler of Mysore. He extended his territories by conquering Bednore, Sundra, Sera, Canara and Guti and subjugated the poligars of south India. With easy success in Bengal, the English concluded a treaty with Nizam Ali of Hyderabad and committed the Company to help the Nizam with the troops in his war against Hyder Ali. In 1767, - the Nizam, the Marathas and the English made an alliance against Hyder. But Hyder was brave and diplomatic. He beat the English at their own game by making peace with the Marathas and alluring the Nizam with territorial gains and together with the latter launched an attack on Arcot. The fight continued for a year and half and the British suffered heavy losses. The panic-stricken British had to sue for peace. A treaty was signed on April 4, 1769, on the basis of restitution of each other's territories.
1769�70 there was �Great famine in Bengal� in which nearly 10 million people perished. Later several other famines hit different parts of Indian killing millions of people during East India companies rule.
First Anglo Maratha war (1775 �1782): Narayan Rao became the fifth Peshwa of the Marathas. Narayan Rao killed by his uncle Raghunath Rao, who declared himself as the Peshwa. The Maratha chieftains under the leadership of Nana Phadnis opposed him. Raghunath Rao sought help from the English. The English agreed to help him and concluded with him the Treaty of Surat on March 7, 1775. According to the treaty the English were to provide 2,500 men and Raghunath was to cede Salsette and Bassein to the English with part of the revenues from Broach and Surat districts.
Maratha army and chiefs proclaimed Madhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa and on January 9 1779, the British troops met a large Maratha army at Talegon and were defeated. This shattered the prestige of the British so low that they had to enter into a humiliating Treaty of Wadgaon. British had to surrender all the territories acquired by the Company since 1773.
Warren Hastings, the Governor-General, sent a strong force under Colonel Goddard who took possession of Ahmedabad on February 15 and captured Bassein on December 11, 1780. Warren Hastings sent another force against Mahadaji Sindhia. Captain Popham captured Gwalior on August 3 1780 and on February 16, 1781, General Camac defeated Sindhia at Sipri. These victories increased the prestige of the English, who gained Sindhia as an ally to conclude the the Treaty of Salbai on 17 May 1782. As per this treaty Company recognised Madhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa and returned to the Sindhia all his territories west of Yamuna. The treaty of Salbai assured mutual restitution of each other's territories and guaranteed peace for twenty years.
In 1780 when the English wanted to attack the French at Mahe, situated on the west coast of Mysore, Hyder Ali did not permit it. Therefore the English declared war against Hyder Ali. Hyder Ali arranged a joint front with the Nizam and the Marathas. In July 1780, Hyder Ali with 80,000 men and 100 guns attacked Carnatic. In October 1780 he captured Arcot, defeating an English army under Colonel Braille. Meanwhile British managed to break the alliance between the Raja of Berar, Mahadji Sindhia, Nizam and Hyder Ali.
Hyder Ali continued the war with the British. But in November 1781, Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Nova. In January 1782, English captured Trincomali. In 1982, Hyder Ali inflicted a humiliating defeat on the British troops under Colonel Braithwaite. On December 7, 1782, Hyder Ali died. His son Tipu Sultan bravely fought against Britishers. Tipu captured brigadier Mathews, in 1783. Then in November 1783, Colonel Fullarton captured Coimbatore. Tired of the war, the two sides concluded the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784. According to the treaty, both the parties decided to restore each other's conquered territories and free all the prisoners.
Pitt's India Act - 1784 - British Parliament under Pitt�s India Bill of 1784 appointed a Board of Control. It provided for a joint government of the Company (represented by the Directors), and the Crown (represented by the Board of Control). In 1786, trough a supplementary bill, Lord Cornwallis was appointed as the first Governor-General, and he became the effective ruler of British India under the authority of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors.
Third Mysore War - The immediate cause of the war was Tipu's attack on Travancore on December 29, 1789 over aq dispute over Cochin. The Raja of Travancore was entitled to the protection of the English. Thus taking advantage of the situation, the English, making a triple alliance with the Nizams and the Marathas, attacked Tipu Sultan.
The war between Tipu and the alliance lasted for nearly two years. British under Major-General Medows, could not win against Tipu. On January 29, 1791, Cornwallis himself took over the command of the British troops. He captured Bangalore in 1791 and approached Seringapatnam, Tipu's capital. Tipu displayed great skill in defending and his tactics forced Cornwallis to retreat. Tipu captured Coimbatore on November 3. Lord Cornwallis soon returned and occupied all the forts in his path to Seringapatnam. On February 5, 1792 Cornwallis arrived at Serinapatnam. Tipu had to sue for peace and the Treaty of Seringapatnam concluded in March 1792. The treaty resulted in the surrender of nearly half of the Mysorean territory to the victorious allies. Tipu also had to pay a huge war indemnity of and his two sons were taken as hostages.
Fourth Mysore war - Lord Wellesley became the governor general of India in 1798. Tipu Sultan tried to secure an alliance with the French against the English in India. Wellesley questioned Tipu�s relationship with the French and attacked Mysore in 1799. The fourth Anglo-Mysore War was of short duration and decisive and ended with Tipu�s death on May 4, 1799 who was killed fighting to save his capital.
Second Anglo-Maratha war, 1803 -
After death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800, there was infighting between Holkar and Sindhia chiefs. The new Peshwa Baji Rao murdered Vithuji Holkar, brother of Jaswant Rao Holkar in April 1801. Holkar defeated the combined armies of Sindhias and the Peshwas at Poona and captured the city. The new Peshwa Baji Rao II, was weak and sought the protection of British through treaty of Bassein in 1802. Baji Rao II was restored to Peshwarship under the protection of the East India Company. However, the treaty was not acceptable to both the Marathas chieftains - the Shindia and Bhosales. This directly resulted in the Second Anglo-Maratha war in 1803.
Sindhia and Bhosale tried to win over Holkar but he did not join them and retired to Malwa and Gaekwad chose to remain neutral. Even at this point of time, the Marathas chiefs were not able to unify themselves and thus the challenge to the authority of the Company brought disasters for both the Sindhias and Bhosales. The war began in August 1803. British under General Wellesley (brother of Lord Wellesley) defeated Bhosales at Argain on November 29 and the British captured the strong fortress of Gawilgrah on December 15, 1803. In the north, General Lake captured Delhi and Agra. The army of Sindhia was completely destroyed at the battle of Delhi in September and at Laswari in Alwar State in November. The British further won in Gujarat, Budelkhand and Orissa.
By the Treaty of Deogaon signed on December 17, 1803, the Bhosale surrendered to the Company the province of Cuttack and the entire region in the west of the rivers Wards.
Similarly, the Sindhia signed the Treaty of Surji-Arjanaon on December 30, 1803 and ceded to the Company all their territories between the Ganga and the Yamuna. British forces were stationed in the territories of the Sindhia and Bhosale. With these victories Britishers became the dominant power in India.
In 1804 Holkar army successfully defeated British army in Kota and forced them out from Agra. British somehow managed to defend Delhi. However in November 1804 British army managed to defeat a contingent of Holkar army but they were Holkar defeated British in Bharatpur in 1805. Ultimately Treaty of Rajpurghat" was signed on December 25, 1805 between Holkar and British.
Third Marataha War (1817-1818) � Marathas were ultimately defeated and Maratha power destroyed by British in several wars during 1817- 1818. Holkar's forces were routed at Mahidpur December 21, 1817 and Baji Rao II, who was trying to consolidate Marathas, finally surrendered in June 1818. British abolished the position of Peshwa and Marathas were limited to the small kingdom of Satara. Thus ended the mighty Maratha power.
Between 1814 to 1826 British had to fight many wars against Gurkhas in the North and Burmese in the North East. After several losses and some gains British signed peace treaties with Gurkhas of Nepal and Burmese. During the period of 1817-1818 British had to fight against non-traditional armies of Pindaris, who used to plunder British territory. British finally managed to crush Pindaris.
During this period in the North West region of Punjab the Sikh power was growing and Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) of Punjab became very powerful. British already had their hands full with problems in different part of India. They were afraid of Ranjit Singh�s power. So in 1838 they made a peace treaty with Ranjit Singh. During the same year there was a big famine in north-west India that killed nearly a million people. But after Ranjit Singh�s death there was infighting amongst Sikhs. British tried to take advantage of this and First Anglo - Sikh war started in 1845. Battle of Mudki and Ferozshah (1845) saw heavy fighting between British and Sikhs. Sikhs were defeated due to the treachery of their generals. The final battle of Sobraon on February 10, 1846 proved decisive where Sikhs again lost due to the betrayal of their generals. The British were able to capture most of India after defeating Sikhs in 1849 in Second Anglo - Sikh War.
The year 1853 stands out to be a landmark year in modern Indian history as the first Railway opened from Bombay to Thane and first Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra was started. This was one of the first major positive contributions that British made in India. Although the initial purpose of these was to improve the mobility and communication of the British troops but much later they became very useful for common people.
HIMALAYAN MOUNTAIN
NOW! EXPLORE WHERE THE TV CAMERAS HAVE NOT YET TAKEN YOU BEFORE! YOU WILL BE THE MOST AMAZED OF THE BIGGEST WONDER OF EARTH, YET! THOUSANDS OF YEARS BEFORE ADAM & EVE, UNDERWORLD CITIES OF EARTH HAVE BEEN HERE ALL ALONG AND NOT EVERYONE KNOWS ABOUT IT, YET. DON'T BE SURPRISED IF YOU MEET WIERD ALIENS ALONG THE WAY, DOWN THERE. AND, MANY ARE FLY-INS FROM OTHER PLANETS. THEY RANGE IN SIZES. ANUNNAKI PEOPLE ARE VERY TALL. GRAYS ARE VERY SHORT. THE GRAYS DON'T EAT, BUT, THEY ABDUCT SURFACE PEOPLE, 100-200 A MONTH, INTO SPACECRAFTS, FOR THEIR BLOOD. ANUNNAKI ARE SO HUGE, THAT, IF YOU TAKE A SECOND LOOK AT EGYPTIAN STATUES ON TOMBS AND IN PYRAMIDS, YOU WILL SEE THEY ARE VERY GIANT PEOPLE ARE RELATED TO THEM AND THEY STILL DO EXIST. THERE ARE MILLIONS AND MILLIONS OF UNDERWORLD PEOPLE RANGING IN DIFFERENT SPECIES AND SIZES AND COME FROM OTHER PLANETS THEIR SECRET SPACECRAFT SPACEPORT ENTRANCE IS FOUND AT THE NORTH POLE AND THE CITY BENEATH THE NORTH POLE IS CALLED RAINBOW CITY A TROPICAL PARADISE. REPTILIAN PEOPLE ALSO LIVE IN THE UNDERWORLD OF EARTH. THEY ARE QUITE DIFFERENT - SOME OF THEM ARE, LIVING VAMPIRES, THEY LOVE BLOOD, JUST LIKE THE GRAYS DO. THEY ABDUCT PEOPLE INTO UFOS FOR THEIR BLOOD, TOO, BESIDES OF BEING CURIOUS ABOUT SURFACE EARTH PEOPLE, THEY KIDNAP THEM AND PUT THEM INTO LAB CAGES, FOR BODY PARTS, EXPERIMENTATION, WHATEVER THEY WISH AND SOME PEOPLE ARE KIDNAPPED TO OTHER PLANETS! THEY PLAN TO TAKE OVER EARTH AND THEY ARE RELATED TO MARDUK OF IRAQ'S NIBIRU PLANET THAT ALSO PLANS TO TAKE OVER EARTH BEFORE 2012 TAKES PLACE. HOWEVER, THE TIBET CAVES LEAD TO UNDERWORLD CITIES AND, TIBET CAVE UNDERWORLD PEOPLE ARE DARK COMPLECTED, ANTI-CHRIST, BUDDHISTS, DRINK TLC TEA EVERYDAY FOR A HIGH, EXPERTS AT NINJA, AND, THEY PLAN TO INVADE SURFACE PEOPLE BY TATTOOING AND TERRORIZING CHRISTIANS BY 2012. THERE ARE THOUSANDS OF ENTRANCES THAT LEAD INTO EARTH. THIS IS ONE OF THEM. ONE OF THE CITIES INSIDE EARTH FROM TIBET IS SHAMBHALLA. IT HAS A PYRAMID THAT IS THE LARGEST IN THE WORLD. THE DRAGON OF SATAN IS THEIR LEADER. HE IS SO VERY VERY ANTI-CHRIST, HE HAS A PLAN FOR ALL SURFACE CHRISTIANS AND THAT IS TO PLAN AN ATTACK ONTO CHRISTIANS, WORLDWIDE, BEFORE 2012 BY TATTOOING AND TERRORIZING CHRISTIANS. BUT, AS SOON AS THEIR LONG TIME FRIEND, IRAQ, IS INVADED BY AMERICANS & BRITISH SETTLING IN IRAQ, THEY WILL BEGIN A MAJOR TERRORISTIC ATTACK AS SOON AS THEIR FRIENDLY NEIGHBOR, MARDUK OF NIBIRU BATTLESTAR, THE WICKEDEST BATTLESTAR CRAFT EVER MADE, ARRIVES FROM SPACE, DECEMBER OF 2006. IF YOU ARE THINKING OF BRINGING WEAPONRY ON YOUR SWEET VISIT DOWN THERE INTO THE CAVES THAT LEAD TO THEIR CITIES, DON'T EVEN THINK ABOUT IT. THEIR WEAPONRY IS MORE ADVANCED THEY YOURS AND THEY DO CARRY THEM AROUND WITH THEM DOWN THERE. YOU ARE WELCOME TO VISIT THEM, AS LONG AS YOU ARE HUMBLE, LOYAL, WELL MANNERED, DRESS WELL, SIGHT-SEE AND THEN, LEAVE. NO CAMERAS ALLOWED! THEY HAVE THEIR OWN SUN, RIVERS, SPRINGS, OCEANS, LAKES, FAUNA, STORES, RESIDENCES, COMPUTERS, ETC. SOME ALIENS THAT ARE FLY-INS ARE A BIT VIOLENT, HOSTILE AND DANGEROUS! THOUGH, THAT DOES NOT MEAN THE DRAGON LEADER OF SATAN, THE 33 THOUSAND YEAR OLD KER'SERAT, IS NOT SAFE! HE LIVES ON! HE WILL WAR WITH GOD IN HEAVEN IN 2099 AND WILL LOSE THE WAR. YES! HE IS DOWN THERE, NOW! GETTING READY FOR WAR. OUT OF CHINA COMES THE DRAGON! THE GOBI DESERT IN MONGOLIA HAS A PORTAL GATE ENTRANCE WORMHOLE THAT LEADS TO OTHER PLANETS! THE DRAGON IS CONNECTED TO THERE, TOO. THERE ARE DRAGON/REPTILAINS WHO ARE PRETENDING TO BE PEOPLE WITH HUMAN LOOKING SKIN, HAIR, STRANGE VOICE, LOVE RARE MEAT, ANTI-CHRIST WORSHIPPERS, THEY DO STUPID THINGS AND THEY COULD HAVE CONNECTIONS WITH NIBIRU/MARDUK TERRORISTS. JESUS CHRIST OF ISRAEL - THE MESSIAH, IS AMONG EARTH SURFACE PEOPLE, NOW. HE IS ALREADY ON EARTH SAYING HE IS THE MESSIAH. THOSE THAT REALLY DO BELIEVE HE IS WILL FOLLOW HIM INTO ISRAEL AS HE GATHERS HIS SELECT. JESUS IS HERE, AMONG EARTHIANS, NOW. HE WILL GATHER ALL HIS SELECT. HIS BEAUTIFUL AMBER YELLOW CRAFT IS HIDDEN AND WILL REMAIN HIDDEN UNTIL HE IS READY TO LEAVE WITH IT WITH HIS SELECT CHOSEN PEOPLE WHO BELIEVE IN HIM AND WHO WILL OBEY HIM, TIME COMING.
ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENTISTS
Ancient Indians possessed great knowledge and applied them for the benefit of community in all areas of human development. In fact several inventions and discoveries believed to have originated from the Western world have been studied centuries earlier by our ancestors. For instance, it is widely believed that Christopher Columbus was the first person to discover that the Earth was round, during his voyages, somewhere around 1500 A.D. In 499 A.D. D., famous Indian Astronomer Aryabhatta defined the shape of the Earth in his work `Aryabhateeyam’ [Chapter 4-6], as follows:
Mrujjalashikhivaayumayo Bhoogola: sarvatho vruttha:
[Meaning: Earth which is made of soil, water, fire and air is circular when viewed from all sides. i.e., The Earth is spherical].
Thousands of years before Columbus, our scriptures such as the Vedas, Puranas and Ithihaasaas used the term `Bhoogola’ for the Earth. `Bhoo’ means Earth and `Gola’ means `sphere’. Our ancestors wrote elaborate treatises on Astronomy, Warfare, Geometry, Medicine, etc. Many of the mathematical and scientific explanations given by our ancestors can be proved using current methods. Following is one such.
During Aryabhatta’s time [around 500AD], our ancestors evinced keen interest in motion of bodies [Sir Isaac Newton gained fame since his discovery of the principle of gravity, but Bhaskaracharya II talked about gravity much before Newton]. Aryabhatta’s treatise, Aryabhateeyam [2-31] contains many theorems of motion one of which goes thus:
Bhakthe vilomavivare gathiyogenaanulomavivare dvow
Gathyantharena labdow dviyogakaalaavatheethaishyow
If two objects are traveling in opposite directions, the time required for them to meet is equal to the distance between them divided by the sum of their speeds. If they travel in the same direction the time that has elapsed equals the distance between them divided by the difference in their speeds.
We can see the proof by taking the following problem example:
Let two trucks A and B move in opposite directions with velocities V’ and V” as illustrated in the fig. At one instant the distance between them is x. How much time needs to go by before the two trucks go past each other?
The distance between A and B = x.
Let the time taken before they meet = t.
Let the distance covered by A in this time t = x’.
We know that distance traveled /time taken = speed.
i.e. s/t = v
Applying this equation to truck A,
V’ = x’/t
i.e. x’ = v’t -------------- Equation 1
For truck B,
v” = (x – x’)/t
i.e. x – x’ = v”t ---------- Equation 2
From eqns. 1 and 2,
x – v’t = v”t
x = v’t + v”t = (v’+v”)t
??t = x/(v’+v”)
We can prove the second part of Aryabhatta’s theorem also on similar lines.
The point is that Aryabhatta developed these equations centuries before Newton did. Hail ancient Indian scientists, the pioneers of physics and mathematics.
INDIAN ROBOTICS CAREER
Robotics is not just about building small robots. Robotics involves a lot of fields like electronics, mechanics, computers and is a very interesting and stimulation field to be in unlike building ERP and Banking Applications for some MNC. So for you as a person trying to get into this field will have to know some of the fields that are used in it. There will be mainly three types of projects you will be involved in which are industrial robotics constituting manufacturing robots, application specific which can be bomb disposal for defense to vacuum cleaners for your home and Research level which includes research projects. Each field of robotics will look forward for a different skill set and experience.
The following skill sets is what I think the recruitment person will look for when he is reaching out for candidates
Industrial Robotics: These will look for at least a B.Tech in mechanical engineering / mechatronics, proper understanding of control systems.
Application Specific: These companies produce robots that might involve everything from mechanical systems to high end embedded systems. So they will look forward for again a minimum B.Tech in Computer Engineering / Mechanical Engineering / Electronic Engineering. Skill set will be application specific for Computer Science students they might look for exp with Assembly, C, Embedded Systems, Basic Ai knowledge (Depends), Image processing, Exp with RTOS, f or Mechanical Students the skill set will be similar to the one required in Industrial robotics and for Electrical or Electronics Student they will look forward that you know Assembly, C, FPGA, DSP, Embedded Systems, Control Systems.
Research Level*: These companies will try to find people with higher degrees and a much more complex skill set depending on the field of research.
* don'™t expect to get paid much ( Research jobs a cool and fun but you donรข€™t get paid enough . Ex - A new research scholar at IIT might get anything from Rs 6000 รข€“ Rs 9000 ) .
What should I do so as to get selected?
Get a B.Tech or a BE for starters (Computer, IT, Mechanical, Mechatronics, Electronics, Electrical etc). If you can go for higher studies do it will radically increase your chances for working in this field. In India many course are available here is the Indian Robotics Courses List. But try to leave for US based universities if you can there are many good universities in the US involved in robotics namely CMU.
Also try to do a decent robotics project in your Final year of undergraduate degree. Remember stupid robots like R/C, Object avoiders, LFR, and Object avoiders will not be considered anywhere try to build robotics with high end technologies are used and your expertise is highlighted. For ideas check out the projects page. Also keep updated with the latest news and what is happening in the world.
How much can I expect to get paid?
Why donรข€™t you see many people working in robotics? Simple enough people donรข€™t get paid enough รข€¦ Iรข€™m not talking about IITians into taking into consideration general public. Reasons are quite simple Robotics is not a Big industry so how can a company pay you?? So you wont even get half of what you would make in the general industry (IT) .IF you make it though an MNC then its much better.
In India robotics has not taken up much due to the fact robotics being associated with unemployment that is not true at all also the initial design and development cost is quite high.
So I would say go for higher studies (preferably US) and join an MNC after that. Its really cool working in such a field but if you have problems with paying bills with what you earn consider doing something else (Ill do that at least) and continue with your passion for robotics as a hobby.
The following skill sets is what I think the recruitment person will look for when he is reaching out for candidates
Industrial Robotics: These will look for at least a B.Tech in mechanical engineering / mechatronics, proper understanding of control systems.
Application Specific: These companies produce robots that might involve everything from mechanical systems to high end embedded systems. So they will look forward for again a minimum B.Tech in Computer Engineering / Mechanical Engineering / Electronic Engineering. Skill set will be application specific for Computer Science students they might look for exp with Assembly, C, Embedded Systems, Basic Ai knowledge (Depends), Image processing, Exp with RTOS, f or Mechanical Students the skill set will be similar to the one required in Industrial robotics and for Electrical or Electronics Student they will look forward that you know Assembly, C, FPGA, DSP, Embedded Systems, Control Systems.
Research Level*: These companies will try to find people with higher degrees and a much more complex skill set depending on the field of research.
* don'™t expect to get paid much ( Research jobs a cool and fun but you donรข€™t get paid enough . Ex - A new research scholar at IIT might get anything from Rs 6000 รข€“ Rs 9000 ) .
What should I do so as to get selected?
Get a B.Tech or a BE for starters (Computer, IT, Mechanical, Mechatronics, Electronics, Electrical etc). If you can go for higher studies do it will radically increase your chances for working in this field. In India many course are available here is the Indian Robotics Courses List. But try to leave for US based universities if you can there are many good universities in the US involved in robotics namely CMU.
Also try to do a decent robotics project in your Final year of undergraduate degree. Remember stupid robots like R/C, Object avoiders, LFR, and Object avoiders will not be considered anywhere try to build robotics with high end technologies are used and your expertise is highlighted. For ideas check out the projects page. Also keep updated with the latest news and what is happening in the world.
How much can I expect to get paid?
Why donรข€™t you see many people working in robotics? Simple enough people donรข€™t get paid enough รข€¦ Iรข€™m not talking about IITians into taking into consideration general public. Reasons are quite simple Robotics is not a Big industry so how can a company pay you?? So you wont even get half of what you would make in the general industry (IT) .IF you make it though an MNC then its much better.
In India robotics has not taken up much due to the fact robotics being associated with unemployment that is not true at all also the initial design and development cost is quite high.
So I would say go for higher studies (preferably US) and join an MNC after that. Its really cool working in such a field but if you have problems with paying bills with what you earn consider doing something else (Ill do that at least) and continue with your passion for robotics as a hobby.
Sunday, August 30, 2009
INDIAN REMOVAL
 | Early in the 19th century, while the rapidly-growing United States expanded into the lower South, white settlers faced what they considered an obstacle. This area was home to the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chicasaw and Seminole nations. These Indian nations, in the view of the settlers and many other white Americans, were standing in the way of progress. Eager for land to raise cotton, the settlers pressured the federal government to acquire Indian territory. Andrew Jackson, from Tennessee, was a forceful proponent of Indian removal. In 1814 he commanded the U.S. military forces that defeated a faction of the Creek nation. In their defeat, the Creeks lost 22 million acres of land in southern Georgia and central Alabama. The U.S. acquired more land in 1818 when, spurred in part by the motivation to punish the Seminoles for their practice of harboring fugitive slaves, Jackson's troops invaded Spanish Florida. From 1814 to 1824, Jackson was instrumental in negotiating nine out of eleven treaties which divested the southern tribes of their eastern lands in exchange for lands in the west. The tribes agreed to the treaties for strategic reasons. They wanted to appease the government in the hopes of retaining some of their land, and they wanted to protect themselves from white harassment. As a result of the treaties, the United States gained control over three-quarters of Alabama and Florida, as well as parts of Georgia, Tennessee, Mississippi, Kentucky and North Carolina. This was a period of voluntary Indian migration, however, and only a small number of Creeks, Cherokee and Choctaws actually moved to the new lands. In 1823 the Supreme Court handed down a decision which stated that Indians could occupy lands within the United States, but could not hold title to those lands. This was because their "right of occupancy" was subordinate to the United States' "right of discovery." In response to the great threat this posed, the Creeks, Cherokee, and Chicasaw instituted policies of restricting land sales to the government. They wanted to protect what remained of their land before it was too late. Although the five Indian nations had made earlier attempts at resistance, many of their strategies were non-violent. One method was to adopt Anglo-American practices such as large-scale farming, Western education, and slave-holding. This earned the nations the designation of the "Five Civilized Tribes." They adopted this policy of assimilation in an attempt to coexist with settlers and ward off hostility. But it only made whites jealous and resentful. Other attempts involved ceding portions of their land to the United States with a view to retaining control over at least part of their territory, or of the new territory they received in exchange. Some Indian nations simply refused to leave their land -- the Creeks and the Seminoles even waged war to protect their territory. The First Seminole War lasted from 1817 to 1818. The Seminoles were aided by fugitive slaves who had found protection among them and had been living with them for years. The presence of the fugitives enraged white planters and fueled their desire to defeat the Seminoles. The Cherokee used legal means in their attempt to safeguard their rights. They sought protection from land-hungry white settlers, who continually harassed them by stealing their livestock, burning their towns, and sqatting on their land. In 1827 the Cherokee adopted a written constitution declaring themselves to be a sovereign nation. They based this on United States policy; in former treaties, Indian nations had been declared sovereign so they would be legally capable of ceding their lands. Now the Cherokee hoped to use this status to their advantage. The state of Georgia, however, did not recognize their sovereign status, but saw them as tenants living on state land. The Cherokee took their case to the Supreme Court, which ruled against them. The Cherokee went to the Supreme Court again in 1831. This time they based their appeal on an 1830 Georgia law which prohibited whites from living on Indian territory after March 31, 1831, without a license from the state. The state legislature had written this law to justify removing white missionaries who were helping the Indians resist removal. The court this time decided in favor of the Cherokee. It stated that the Cherokee had the right to self-government, and declared Georgia's extension of state law over them to be unconstitutional. The state of Georgia refused to abide by the Court decision, however, and President Jackson refused to enforce the law. In 1830, just a year after taking office, Jackson pushed a new piece of legislation called the "Indian Removal Act" through both houses of Congress. It gave the president power to negotiate removal treaties with Indian tribes living east of the Mississippi. Under these treaties, the Indians were to give up their lands east of the Mississippi in exchange for lands to the west. Those wishing to remain in the east would become citizens of their home state. This act affected not only the southeastern nations, but many others further north. The removal was supposed to be voluntary and peaceful, and it was that way for the tribes that agreed to the conditions. But the southeastern nations resisted, and Jackson forced them to leave. Jackson's attitude toward Native Americans was paternalistic and patronizing -- he described them as children in need of guidance. and believed the removal policy was beneficial to the Indians. Most white Americans thought that the United States would never extend beyond the Mississippi. Removal would save Indian people from the depredations of whites, and would resettle them in an area where they could govern themselves in peace. But some Americans saw this as an excuse for a brutal and inhumane course of action, and protested loudly against removal. Their protests did not save the southeastern nations from removal, however. The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty, which they did in September of 1830. Some chose to stay in Mississippi under the terms of the Removal Act.. But though the War Department made some attempts to protect those who stayed, it was no match for the land-hungry whites who squatted on Choctaw territory or cheated them out of their holdings. Soon most of the remaining Choctaws, weary of mistreatment, sold their land and moved west. For the next 28 years, the United States government struggled to force relocation of the southeastern nations. A small group of Seminoles was coerced into signing a removal treaty in 1833, but the majority of the tribe declared the treaty illegitimate and refused to leave. The resulting struggle was the Second Seminole War, which lasted from 1835 to 1842. As in the first war, fugitive slaves fought beside the Seminoles who had taken them in. Thousands of lives were lost in the war, which cost the Jackson administration approximately 40 to 60 million dollars -- ten times the amount it had allotted for Indian removal. In the end, most of the Seminoles moved to the new territory. The few who remained had to defend themselves in the Third Seminole War (1855-58), when the U.S. military attempted to drive them out. Finally, the United States paid the remaining Seminoles to move west. The Creeks also refused to emigrate. They signed a treaty in March, 1832, which opened a large portion of their Alabama land to white settlement, but guaranteed them protected ownership of the remaining portion, which was divided among the leading families. The government did not protect them from speculators, however, who quickly cheated them out of their lands. By 1835 the destitute Creeks began stealing livestock and crops from white settlers. Some eventually committed arson and murder in retaliation for their brutal treatment. In 1836 the Secretary of War ordered the removal of the Creeks as a military necessity. By 1837, approximately 15,000 Creeks had migrated west. They had never signed a removal treaty. The Chickasaws had seen removal as inevitable, and had not resisted. They signed a treaty in 1832 which stated that the federal government would provide them with suitable western land and would protect them until they moved. But once again, the onslaught of white settlers proved too much for the War Department, and it backed down on its promise. The Chickasaws were forced to pay the Choctaws for the right to live on part of their western allotment. They migrated there in the winter of 1837-38. The Cherokee, on the other hand, were tricked with an illegitimate treaty. In 1833, a small faction agreed to sign a removal agreement: the Treaty of New Echota. The leaders of this group were not the recognized leaders of the Cherokee nation, and over 15,000 Cherokees -- led by Chief John Ross -- signed a petition in protest. The Supreme Court ignored their demands and ratified the treaty in 1836. The Cherokee were given two years to migrate voluntarily, at the end of which time they would be forcibly removed. By 1838 only 2,000 had migrated; 16,000 remained on their land. The U.S. government sent in 7,000 troops, who forced the Cherokees into stockades at bayonet point. They were not allowed time to gather their belongings, and as they left, whites looted their homes. Then began the march known as the Trail of Tears, in which 4,000 Cherokee people died of cold, hunger, and disease on their way to the western lands. By 1837, the Jackson administration had removed 46,000 Native American people from their land east of the Mississippi, and had secured treaties which led to the removal of a slightly larger number. Most members of the five southeastern nations had been relocated west, opening 25 million acres of land to white settlement and to slavery. |
INDIANS PAID LESS IN US
Bangalore: Indians are paid nearly 20 times less than their counterparts in the U.S. and Switzerland. According to 'Prices and Earnings' study conducted by Swiss banking major UBS, employees in New Delhi and Mumbai earn an average net salary of $1.6 and $1.2 per hour, respectively.
In contrast, Swiss cities Zurich and Geneva, have topped the charts with the highest average net incomes in the world of as much as $22.60 and $20.40 per hour. "Swiss workers earn the most. Zurich and Geneva top the rankings in our international comparison of wages. By contrast, the average employee in Delhi, Manila, Jakarta and Mumbai earns less than one-fifteenth of that amount," the report stated. Workers in the U.S. also earn at the higher end of bracket with people in New York earning an average salary of $19 per hour, while those in Los Angeles get $13.90 per hour. Workers in London receive an average net wage of $13.90 per hour, it added.
In terms of the gross hourly wages, workers in Western Europe and North America have the highest gross hourly wages averaging at $20.2 and $21.0 respectively, the survey said. While, in Asia and Eastern Europe, workers receive an average of $5.5 per hour before taxes and social security contributions are deducted from the salary.
UBS's report 'Prices and Earnings' is a global review of the prices of goods and services, wages, payroll taxes, working hours and purchasing power in 73 cities on every continent. The survey also pointed out that earnings do not just differ from country to country but also vary among employers within a single city. However, the earnings gap between public and private-sector jobs is particularly stark in emerging and developing countries, it added.
FACTS OF SUN
Our sun has an expected lifetime of about 11 billion years.
Our sun and the surrounding planets orbit around the center of the Milky Way galaxy once every 250 million years.
Only 55% of all Americans know that the sun is a star.
On its trip around the sun, the earth travels over a million and a half miles per day.
No solar eclipse can last longer than 7 minutes 58 seconds because of the speed at which the sun moves.
Lightning bolts can sometimes be hotter than the sun. (about 50 000ยบ F)
It takes only 8 minutes for sunlight to travel from the sun to the earth, which also means, if you see the sun go out, it actually went out 8 minutes ago.
In Spit Bergen, Norway at one time of the year the sun shines continuously for three and a half months.
In Newport, Rhode Island it is illegal to smoke from a pipe after sunset.
In Devon, Connecticut, it is unlawful to walk backwards after sunset.
If the sun stopped shining suddenly, it would take eight minutes for people on earth to be aware of the fact.
For 186 days you can not see the sun in the North Pole.
Every eleven years the magnetic poles of the sun switch. This cycle is called"Solarmax".
Because of the speed at which the sun moves, it is impossible for a solar eclipse to last more than 7 minutes and 58 seconds.
Aztecs believed that the sun died every night and needed human blood to give it strength to rise the next day. So they sacrificed 15,000 men a year to appease their sun god, Huitzilopochtli. Most of the victims were prisoners taken in wars, which were sometimes started solely to round up sacrificial victims.
At the distance at which our sun is located from the center of the Milky Way galaxy, Earth and the rest of our solar system are moving at a speed of about 170 miles per second around the center.
At its center, the sun has a density of over a hundred times that of water, and a temperature of 10-20 million degrees Celsius.
All the coal, oil, gas, and wood on Earth would only keep the Sun burning for a few days.
An area of the Sun's surface the size of a postage stamp shines with the power of 1,500,000 candles.
Your fingernails can turn yellow from wearing nail polish and from the sun.
If the entire solar system were the size of a quarter, the sun would be visible only under a microscope, and the nearest star would be 300 feet away.
The Sun provides our planet with 126,000,000,000,000 horsepower of energy every day.
If the earth were the size of a quarter, the sun would be as large as a 9 foot ball and would be located a football field distance from the earth.
More than 1 million earths would fit inside the sun.
99% of our solar systems mass is concentrated in the sun.
The sun is 330,330 times larger than the earth!
HUMOR - THE BOSS
A man wanted to buy his son a parrot as a birthday present..
The next day he went to the pet shop and saw
three identical parrots in a cage.
He asked the clerk, "how much for the parrot on the right?
The owner said it was Rs. 2500.
"Rs. 2500.", the man said. "Well what does he do?
"He knows how to use all of the functions of Microsoft Office 2000,
responds the clerk.
"He can do all of your spreadsheets and type all of your letters."
The man then asked what the second parrot cost.
The clerk replied, Rs. 5000, but he not only knows Office 2000,
but is an expert computer programmer.
Finally, the man inquired about the cost of the last parrot.
The clerk replied, "Rs. 10,000."
Curious as to how a bird can cost Rs. 10,000, the man asked what this
bird's specialty was.
The clerk replies, "Well to be honest I haven't seen him do anything.
But the other two call him *"BOSS"!!
The next day he went to the pet shop and saw
three identical parrots in a cage.
He asked the clerk, "how much for the parrot on the right?
The owner said it was Rs. 2500.
"Rs. 2500.", the man said. "Well what does he do?
"He knows how to use all of the functions of Microsoft Office 2000,
responds the clerk.
"He can do all of your spreadsheets and type all of your letters."
The man then asked what the second parrot cost.
The clerk replied, Rs. 5000, but he not only knows Office 2000,
but is an expert computer programmer.
Finally, the man inquired about the cost of the last parrot.
The clerk replied, "Rs. 10,000."
Curious as to how a bird can cost Rs. 10,000, the man asked what this
bird's specialty was.
The clerk replies, "Well to be honest I haven't seen him do anything.
But the other two call him *"BOSS"!!
Guinness World Record in teaching online
Guiness Book Record for teaching 1934 students online from 16 centres worldwide
Dr. Subramonian, Principal of Dr.R.V.Arts and Science College, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu having two records to his credit one is for Continuous Teaching for 61hrs 35mts.(Limca Book of Records-2006) for which he has received the certificate from His Excellency the Governor of Tamilnadu. The second record is for teaching 1934 students online from 16 centres worldwide for this he received the certificate from the hands of His Excellency the former president of India Dr.A.P.J.Abdul Kalam
Dr. Subramonian, Principal of Dr.R.V.Arts and Science College, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu having two records to his credit one is for Continuous Teaching for 61hrs 35mts.(Limca Book of Records-2006) for which he has received the certificate from His Excellency the Governor of Tamilnadu. The second record is for teaching 1934 students online from 16 centres worldwide for this he received the certificate from the hands of His Excellency the former president of India Dr.A.P.J.Abdul Kalam
INDIAN CHESS BOY
Mitrabha Guha was admitted to Dibyendu Barua Chess Academy on 14.11.2005 at the age of 4 years and 2 months.
Mitrabha Guha played his first tournament at the age of 4 years and 3 months in the All Bengal Rapid Tournament held at Monohorpukur, Kolkata as the youngest player.
He participated in the Boys under 7 Chess Championship at the age of 4 years and six months in April 2006 held at the Gujarati Bhawanipur Society, Kolkata also as the youngest player of the tournament.
He participated in the Chess for Youth (under 25) held at Netaji Indoor Stadium, Kolkata and won 5 matches out of 9. He was the youngest player there.
He represented the state of West Bengal in the National Under 7 Boys Chess Championship held at Goa on Nov�2006 when he was 5+ of age and won six out of the possible eleven matches.
He played numerous tournaments between his age of 4 to 6 years held within the state.
He played his second West Bengal under 7 state championships in 2007 at the age of 6+years held at the Bhowanipur Gujarat Society and won the championship to become the Boys Champion.
Mitrabha Guha played in the Chess for Youth�2007 held in the Netaji Indoor Stadium, Kolkata and was the runners-up in the under 8 category.
Next he participated in the National Under 7 Boys Championship held at Lucknow where out of the 10 matches he won 8 matches, drew 2 matches and lost only 1 match and was placed all India 4th at the age of 6+. (Master Anubhav Tuknayat was placed 89th in the all India Ranking in the same event).
In April 2008, he participated in the West Bengal under 7 Chess Championship held in Kolkata and scored 7 wins out of 7 matches and won the championship.
He participated in the Chess for Youth�2008 held in the Netaji Indoor stadium and was the champion there by winning all the 8 matches he played.
He will be playing his third consecutive National Under 7 championship this year as the top seeded player. (Master Anubhav Tuknayat will not be playing in this category since his date of birth his 21.12.2000 and age limit will be limited to those players who was born after 1.1.2001).
He has won numerous tournament in his age group namely All Bengal Tournament held by Lake Town Cultural Association, Kolkata, Modern Chess Academy, City chess forum, Halisahar, Hoogly District Chess Association, Behala Chess School and many others where he was the Boys under 7 champion.
Mitrabha studies in Class I of South Point School, Kolkata.
Mitrabha Guha played his first tournament at the age of 4 years and 3 months in the All Bengal Rapid Tournament held at Monohorpukur, Kolkata as the youngest player.
He participated in the Boys under 7 Chess Championship at the age of 4 years and six months in April 2006 held at the Gujarati Bhawanipur Society, Kolkata also as the youngest player of the tournament.He participated in the Chess for Youth (under 25) held at Netaji Indoor Stadium, Kolkata and won 5 matches out of 9. He was the youngest player there.
He represented the state of West Bengal in the National Under 7 Boys Chess Championship held at Goa on Nov�2006 when he was 5+ of age and won six out of the possible eleven matches.
He played numerous tournaments between his age of 4 to 6 years held within the state.
He played his second West Bengal under 7 state championships in 2007 at the age of 6+years held at the Bhowanipur Gujarat Society and won the championship to become the Boys Champion.
Mitrabha Guha played in the Chess for Youth�2007 held in the Netaji Indoor Stadium, Kolkata and was the runners-up in the under 8 category.
Next he participated in the National Under 7 Boys Championship held at Lucknow where out of the 10 matches he won 8 matches, drew 2 matches and lost only 1 match and was placed all India 4th at the age of 6+. (Master Anubhav Tuknayat was placed 89th in the all India Ranking in the same event).
In April 2008, he participated in the West Bengal under 7 Chess Championship held in Kolkata and scored 7 wins out of 7 matches and won the championship.
He participated in the Chess for Youth�2008 held in the Netaji Indoor stadium and was the champion there by winning all the 8 matches he played.
He will be playing his third consecutive National Under 7 championship this year as the top seeded player. (Master Anubhav Tuknayat will not be playing in this category since his date of birth his 21.12.2000 and age limit will be limited to those players who was born after 1.1.2001).
He has won numerous tournament in his age group namely All Bengal Tournament held by Lake Town Cultural Association, Kolkata, Modern Chess Academy, City chess forum, Halisahar, Hoogly District Chess Association, Behala Chess School and many others where he was the Boys under 7 champion.
Mitrabha studies in Class I of South Point School, Kolkata.
INDIANS IN AFRICA
South African Tourism's Indian expert Alexis Kriel looks at some interesting facts about India's relationship with South Africa.
- Between 1860 and 1911 some 140 000 Indians arrived in South Africa as indentured laborers. The majority of them were Hindus from Madras, Travancore, Orissa and Bengal. Today, there are almost a million Indians living in South Africa - the largest group outside of India and Pakistan
- The first ship to arrive in South Africa (with Indians) was the SS TRURO. There were 348 laborers onboard. They were categorised as 2 % Brahmins, 9 % Kshatriyas, 21 % Vaishyas and 31 % Sudras, 27% Scheduled Castes, 3 % Christians and 4 % Muslims.
- In 1860, of the indentured laborers who arrived in South Africa, 35% were women. The number was later raised to 50%.
- The first Indians who came to South Africa did not work only on the sugar cane plantations; they also worked on the railways, dockyards, municipal services, the coalmines of Northern Natal and in domestic service.
- The name of the first immigrant, recorded on the list of the ship Truro, was Davarum.
- The first major temple erected in South Africa was in 1899. It was a Ganesha Temple at Mount Edgecombe in Durban and was built by an indentured laborer from India known as Kistappa Reddy.
- Today, 140 years later, after playing an integral role in South Africa's transition to democracy, Indians occupy positions in parliament and are contributing to every facet of life in South Africa.
- The origin of the word sugar appears to have its root in India, where its earliest form was the word 'sarkara'. And the word 'candy' is derived from the older word for sugar, namely 'khanda'.
- Mahatma Gandhi arrived in South Africa in 1895, to appear in a court case on behalf of an Indian client, and made his home here. He stayed in South Africa for 21 years. He started his passive resistance movement in South Africa.
- Gandhi's ideas of Satyagraha (Sanskrit for "truth and firmness") evolved in South Africa.
- During the Boer War, Gandhi organised a corps of Indian stretcher-bearers; and again during an outbreak of plague on the Witwatersrand. After the South African war, Gandhi practised as an attorney in Johannesburg.
- Gandhi said that the single most creative time of his life (and the time that changed the course of his life) was when he was in South Africa, where he began to teach a policy of passive resistance to the South African authorities.
- Gandhi only returned to India in 1915, after the government of South Africa made concessions to his demand for recognition of Indian marriages and the abolition of the poll tax. Back in India, he fought for independence from Britain with the strength and ideas that he had developed in South Africa.
- South African law relating to the 'Admissibility of Confessions' is adapted from section 25 of the Indian Evidence Act of 1872.
- Algoa Bay, now known as Port Elizabeth, means 'towards Goa'; and Delagoa Bay, now known as Maputo, means 'from Goa'.
- There are places in South Africa that are named after Portuguese voyagers travelling between Portugal and Goa and stopping over in South Africa.
- A few places in South Africa are named after Alliwal (walla) - the place where the British defeated the Sikhs in India: Alliwal; Alliwal North - founded in 1849 by Sir Harry Smith (the governor of the Cape) to commemorate his victory in India over the Sikhs; Aliwal Shoal - a dangerous shoal on the Natal South Coast; and the former name of Mossel Bay was Aliwal South.
- Kippersol is an Indian origin name for a tree widely found in South Africa.
- The common word for a tangerine (which is called a naartjie in South Africa) is probably derived from the Tamil word nartei for a citron.
- Bunny Chow - a favourite South African dish - is made from a vegetarian curry of beans, sold as a take-away food in a ½ loaf of bread, and comes from the word bhannia (the vegetarian shopkeeper caste) and chow (from the Chinese language).
- Mynah birds, which were introduced to Durban from India, are one of the most common birds found in Natal and Gauteng. It appears in leading South African bird books.
- A bhajiya is known by many South Africans as a 'chili bite'.
- Did you know that the following Bollywood stars have visited South Africa: Sharukh Khan, Preity Zinta, Rani Mukherjee, Zayed Khan and Saif Ali Khan?
- Did you know that Bollywood movies are widely available in South Africa and large movie theatre chains like Ster-Kinekor increasingly show Bollywood films?
- Filmmaker Mira Nair used a South African screenwriter, Helena Kriel, for her script for the movie Karma Sutra and their collaboration on the script and the writing of the script took place in Durban in South Africa.
- The Bollywood movie "Dil ka Rishta" was filmed in Cape Town. And the movie "Shikari" is shot extensively in the jungles of South Africa.
- A Durban consortium is planning a multi-million dollar film studio to help visiting film crews from India.
- Shilpa Shetty is about to shoot a film in South Africa with Mahmud Sipra.
- All the spices of India are available in South Africa and there are many excellent Indian restaurants.
- Indians in South Africa celebrate the festivals of their homeland, like Ratha Yatra, Deepavali, Kavadi, Eid and Mohurram.
CRICKET
| 2,500-pound machine strapped around Flintoof's knee to save his cricket career | |||
| 2009-08-30 14:20:00 | |||
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